Verdienstunterschiede zwischen Mnnern und Frauen. London, UK: Sage Publications. (1977). 189, 46. doi: 10.2139/ssrn.1413792, Sauer, C., Auspurg, K., Hinz, T., Liebig, S., and Schupp, J. Thus, there should be an interaction effect between the vignette dimension gender and the actual gender pay gap in the federal state. This study focuses on the relevance and weight of gender in justice evaluations; thus, predictions about reward-relevant characteristics are required2. Psychol. In the student sample and population sample 1, the number of dimensions (5, 8, and 12 dimensions) and the number of vignettes presented (10, 20, or 30 vignettes for each respondent) were varied in a between-subjects design4. The hypothesis refers to the question of the sign of a just gender pay gap. 10, 393430. Under the assumption of biased referential structures, it can be predicted under which structural conditions gender is likely to be a status characteristic and thereby a relevant factor in the justice evaluation process formulated in Equation (3). WebGender wage gap is the difference in earnings between men and women and the difference has been an ongoing problem in the U.S. labor force. doi: 10.1080/0022250X.1986.9990014, Jasso, G. (2006). In the student sample, the effect of gender on the justice evaluation is insignificant, which indicates that minor importance is attached to this dimension. A further note is that in all three datasets, there were similar effects for the other dimensions, indicating consensus regarding expected rewards for inputs and abilities such as education, occupation, and age. ^D-efficient designs (Kuhfeld, 2005) are built using a computer algorithm that specifies a sample characterized by a minimal intercorrelation between dimensions (main effects and interaction terms) while also ensuring a maximal variance and balance of the frequency of the dimensions levels. Factorial survey methods for studying beliefs and judgments. Methods Res. Men, like any other group with a power orwealthadvantage in Conflict Theory, fought to maintain theircontroloverresources(in this case, political and economic power). These referential structures are general relations between a person's states of characteristics (in this case, male or female) and respective rewards (earnings) that are activated in justice evaluations. With respect to this feature, factorial surveys have an advantage over justice measures of individuals' own earnings, as gender can be modeled as uncorrelated with other recipient's characteristics, e.g., occupational status and gross earnings, which are correlated in the real world. It is commonly calculated by dividing womens wages by mens wages, and this ratio is often expressed as a percent, or in dollar terms. Just. Many articles provide discussions on different aspects of the theory [see Jasso (1978, 1980, 1981, 1986); Sotan (1981); Markovsky (1985); Whitmeyer (2004)]. I acknowledge funding from the German Research Foundation (grant number: HI 680-4-1) and the Dutch Research Foundation (grant number: 4510-17-024). Q. The sampling procedure followed two steps: after sampling the vignettes, they were allocated to different decks (Jasso, 2006) that were randomly assigned to questionnaires that the respondents had to complete. This is a mandatory requirement to investigate gender bias introduced by the respondents. The investigation of gender bias in earnings is important not only for justice research but also, more generally, for labor market sociology, as these biased attitudes have consequences for the actual behavior of labor market participants. Beliefs about inequality and perceptions of distributive justice. If respondents rated the income as just, they were forwarded to the next vignette. While fighting over control of these resources, these groups and individuals develop their own interests. Sci. In Germany, the gender differences in earnings have remained persistently high over the last decade (Hobler and Pfahl, 2019) in comparison to other European countries. Women learned from their mothers to be subservient to their husbands, fathers, brothers, and sons and men learned from their mothers and fathers that their wives, mothers, sisters, and daughters must be subservient to them. These vignette-based justice evaluations can be used to measure the independent impacts of the recipient's gender and other characteristics on the justice evaluations of observers. A just gender pay gap? Conflict theorists would investigate how the interests of dominant groups create gender norms and roles, as well as how these roles help to sustain the status quo and strengthen social hierarchies. doi: 10.1086/226826. Thus, male and female students did not account for gender similarly in their justice evaluations as it would be the case when it was a status characteristic for both groups. doi: 10.1515/zfsoz-2009-0501, Shepelak, N. J., and Alwin, D. F. (1986). Due the end of week 7. The model in Equation (4) specifies that the justice evaluation J of vignette v of the i-th respondent is based on the given dimensions of each vignette. Factorial Survey Experiments, Vol. The actual gender pay gap captures the differences in earnings between men and women. Each respondent rated several vignettes; therefore, the data have a multi-level structure. All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. The second model includes the interaction term between the vignette person's gender and the gender pay gap in the federal state. With these pieces of information, it was possible to find those interviews that did not fulfill the requirements for the analysis: interviews were excluded from the analysis sample if respondents did not perform the task on their own but with the help of others. Dittrich, M., Knabe, A., and Leipold, K. (2014). This was due to womens dependence on men for the attainment of wages. doi: 10.1037/bul0000135. Questions surrounding distributive justice are part of the research program of the empirical sociological justice literature (Jasso et al., 2016; Liebig and Sauer, 2016) that has been developed over the last 50 years and now has a formalized core mapping the evaluation process. Sipe, S., Johnson, C. D., and Fisher, D. K. (2009). Res. Thus, people in Germany experience remarkable gender inequality in pay over the life course when they participate in the labor market. The conflict theory comes from the work of Karl Marx where there are different kinds of groups competing for dominance. In sum, age, education, occupation, and the associated earnings provided information on the recipients that all respondents used in their justice evaluation. While the factorial survey module of the student sample and one population sample were identical, the second population sample used a different module and is used to emphasize the robustness of the findings. Although laws were passed in the United States to end the gender wage gap, women still suffer the unfair payment; therefore, the countrys governments needs to enforce or implement more laws to end the gap. J. Sociol. The status value is not an intrinsic feature of a characteristic (in this case, gender) but attached to the characteristic by generally shared beliefs. The observers produce in this case no just gender pay gap. Early formulations of justice evaluation processes identified comparisons as the key mechanism how actors assess the justice or injustice of their rewards. The assumption is that contexts shape justice attitudes, meaning that students and employees change their attitudes as they come into other contexts. In this population, it is less likely that gender has status value and therefore is not a relevant characteristic within the justice evaluation process. The gender wage gap is a measure of what women are paid relative to men. Received: 21 June 2019; Accepted: 11 March 2020; Published: 07 April 2020. ^The models were estimated with the statistical software Stata 13.1 (StataCorp, 2011). Therefore, this study aims to investigate income trajectories and the differences regarding men and women. Stratif. In 2022, women earned an average of 82% of what men earned, according to a new Pew Research Center analysis of median hourly earnings of both full- and part-time workers. Table 8. University students' perceptions of gender discrimination in the workplace: reality versus fiction. Methods Res. Berger et al. doi: 10.1007/s11211-015-0256-4, Liebig, S., Sauer, C., and Schupp, J. Bearing the limitations of this study in mind, the findings provide important insights for sociological justice research, as they show how inequalities influence the justice evaluations of people. 34, 334423. Usually, the official statistics reporting the unadjusted gender pay gap use the arithmetic mean or the median of hourly or monthly wages of men and women. Just. Webtrends in the US gender wage gap and on their sources (in a descriptive sense). Therefore, they also experience gender inequalities in other contexts. 46, 227241. Models 1 and 2 report the coefficients for the student sample. Am. Thus, status characteristics that refer to categorical differences, abilities or inputs are relevant for the observer to estimate the just earnings C of a recipient. To gain insights into whether these rating patterns were similar for both male and female respondents, as suggested by Hypothesis 2, respondents' gender was included in the regression. Students in social sciences from 27 universities throughout Germany were interviewed via computer-assisted web interviews and computer-assisted self interviews in labs and in the presence of research assistants. The results are very similar to those for the first population sample and are in line with Hypothesis 2. In other words, respondents produce with their ratings a just gender pay gap favoring men, as found by Jasso and Webster (1997). Table 5 provides the median earnings and gender pay gaps in 2009 for each state separately. The effect of average gross earnings is significantly negative, meaning that respondents living in federal states with high average earnings evaluated the gross earnings described in the vignettes more often as unjustly low compared to those respondents living in federal states with lower average earnings. Soc. Sociol. The growing gender gap in higher education both in enrollment and graduation rates has been a topic of conversation and debate in recent months. Intersectionality - The Feminist Perspective, 29. Jasso on distributive justice. StataCorp (2011). Model 1 includes the structural variables of average gross earnings and gender pay gap per federal state. Rev. doi: 10.2307/2095066, Jasso, G. (1986). Post-Commun. The gap stems from prejudice against women workers, resulting in women receiving less pay than men do for the same work. The rewards of the generalized other represent the typical earnings of similar people, while the normative evaluation of whether earnings are too high or too low is located in the comparison between the actual outcomes and the referential outcomes. In 1963 women earned 59 cents for every dollar a man earned. As well as looking at basic differences in pay, the research identifies the characteristics that explain those differences such as age, occupation and level of education. What do you see as some of the pros and cons of placing a child with ADHD on medication? The regression Equation (4) displays the models with an attached intercept (0), a respondent-specific residual (i) and an error term iv. The interaction effect eliminates the main effect of gender, meaning that gender is a relevant characteristic for young people or people with higher secondary education who are not students but has no impact on judgments when respondents are students. Social order is kept by power and control; those with wealth and power try to hold on to it; mainly by overpowering the poor and powerless. By relying on human capital theory, traditional gender roles and 6. CS conducted the survey and wrote the paper. The left extreme point (5) was labeled unjustly low, the midpoint (0) was labeled just and the right extreme point (+5) was labeled unjustly high. The midpoint was coded as zero, the left segment as negative numbers, and the right segment as positive numbers. Sexism and misogyny will steadily disappear with this quota firmly in place, as it looks to, equalize the power discrepancy between men and women (Kittay 1999, 12). Evidenz aus einem Vignetten-Experiment, in Erwerbsarbeit, Einkommen und Geschlecht, ed B. Jann (Wiesbaden: VS), 107126. The factorial survey approach: an introduction, in Measuring social Judgements: the Factorial Survey Approach, Measuring Social Judgments: The Factorial Survey Approach, eds P. Rossi and S. L. Nock (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage), 1567. Marketing Research Methods in SAS. The objective of these pretests is to test new modules and modifications of questions. Bull. Web79Conflict Theory Conflict theory looks at conflict and power. Gender inequalitiesrefer to absolute differences in the treatment and outcomes for men versus women (e.g., the % of CEOS that are men vs. women), that may or may not be deserved.1Gender inequitiesspecifically refer to differences in the treatment and outcomes for men versus women that are undeserved given their merits or contributions (2009). In 2022, women earned an average of 82% of what men earned, according to a new Pew Research Center analysis of median hourly earnings of both full- and part-time workers. The respondents in the population samples were sampled in different regions in Germany with differing degrees of earnings inequality between men and women. The gender gap in pay has remained relatively stable in the United States over the past 20 years or so. Table 5. (2007). Therefore, the findings presented above could reflect age or cohort as well as education effects. In all cases, researchers compare median earnings for women versus men. Res. WebAccording to the Institute for Womens Policy Research (IWPR) analysis of the gender wage gap by occupation, despite progress since the 1970s, the median wage for women employed full time in 2010 was only 81% male full time worker, a gap of 19%. (2011). This gap was equal for male and female observers. Moreover, the comparisons between different subpopulations are based on cross-sectional data. Because the assumption of uncorrelated error terms is violated and standard ordinary least squares (OLS) regression models would be biased (Cameron and Trivedi, 2009), the data were analyzed via multi-level regressions using a generalized least squares (GLS) estimator8. (1985). Jasso, G. (1978). WebGender pay gap The gender gap pay is an analysis of the stratification of the intersection based on gender. Equation (5) was used to estimate the results presented in Table 7. Here's What Women Make Compared to The study assumed that actual gender inequalities lead to biased referential structures that typically associate men with higher earnings. The outcome variable in the following regression models is the z-standardized justice evaluation per vignette. The questionnaire consisted of the factorial survey module and additional questions on attitudes (after the factorial survey module) and questions on the socio-demographic background. WebAccording to conflict theory, society is a struggle for dominance among social groups (like women versus men) that compete for scarce resources. WebThe unadjusted gender pay gap is defined as the difference of the average gross earnings of men and women divided by the average gross earnings of men. The unadjusted gender pay gap is defined as the difference of the average gross earnings of men and women divided by the average gross earnings of men. Course Hero is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university. Assignment should Please structure your assignment as an essay, not as a list . (28, Conley). There are methods reports available that provide additional information on the data used (Sauer et al., 2009, 2011, 2014). Ethical review and approval was not required for the study on human participants in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. 65:100473. doi: 10.1016/j.rssm.2020.100473. Jann, B. Jasso, G. (2007). doi: 10.2307/2657396, Keywords: justice evaluations, just gender pay gap, gender inequalities, status beliefs, factorial survey, German-Germany, Citation: Sauer C (2020) Gender Bias in Justice Evaluations of Earnings: Evidence From Three Survey Experiments. Stratificat. 79, 226246. The gender pay gap has been observed for decades, and still exists. Available online at: https://www.statistik.rlp.de/fileadmin/dokumente/monatshefte/2010/Juni/06-2010-440.pdf, Schupp, J. doi: 10.1177/0001699308090039, Jasso, G., and Rossi, P. H. (1977). (1996). J. Educ. 45, 332. Making regression tables simplified. HUM210 - Introduction to Women and Gender Studies - Course Goal, Description, Learning Topics & Outcomes, 2. . Second, whereas the main survey is a study of private households, the SOEP-Pretest is a sample of individuals. The lowest pay gap in 2009 for full-time employed people was measured in Saxony-Anhalt at 1 percent. The results are presented in Table 8. Nevertheless, many high-positioned, wealthy and powerful men can and are willing to help women in coping and improving this situation. The gender gap in negotiation may in part explain why women in the United States earned only about 83% of mens median annual earnings in 2021, according to the Institute for Womens Policy Research. Math. 21, 106144. On average women are paid 80 cents for every dollar paid to men. Do highly paid, highly skilled women experience the largest motherhood penalty? WebCorrections. (1985) distinguish three types of referential structures: categorical referential structures are based on who you are, ability referential structures are based on what you can do, and performance-outcome referential structures are based on what you have done. Reward expectations theory implies that categorical, ability and performance-outcome characteristics may together determine reward expectations and therefore justice evaluations. DIW Wochenbericht 87, 147152. Social institutions change and shift over time, affecting other social institutions and society as a whole. The gender gap pay is an analysis of the stratification of the intersection based on gender. Gender Pay Gap in den Kpfen: Mnner und Frauen bewerten niedrigere Lhne fr Frauen als gerecht. Conflict theorists do not believe that public schools reduce social inequality through providing equal opportunity. Correlations of vignette dimensions for the population sample 2. 3 In 2022, Black women earned 70% as much as White men and Hispanic women earned only 65% as much. A recent snapshot. Their interviews were not used because they did not fulfill the requirements. Less is sometimes more: consequences of overpayment on job satisfaction and absenteeism. According to research, women earn only 76% of what men are paid for doing the same task, Women are generally considered as the weak gender and are supposed to be submissive to their, husbands. However, following the work of Berger et al. 26, 132150. The vignettes of the student sample and population sample 1 were additionally presented in random order for each respondent. Argument that Gender is Not a Social Construct, This article was first published in The Irish Times on 04/04/2013. The effect is significantly negative, meaning that the larger the gender pay gap in the federal state was, the larger the gender pay gap produced by respondents' ratings. Amer. The gender pay gaps per federal state are provided by the Statistical Office of Rhineland-Palatinate (Schomaker, 2010a,b). Table 1 shows the dimensions and levels used for the analyses. Rather, they believe that the educational system reinforces and perpetuates social inequalities that arise from differences in class, gender, race, and ethnicity. doi: 10.1007/BF02683292, Kugler, K. G., Reif, J. Both studies used the same vignettes. Moreover, it shows again high consistency of evaluations of the population samples. Kevin J. Mitchell, Ph.D., "Sex on the Brain" published by Aeon Magazine, https://aeon.co/essays/the-gender-wars-will-end-only-with-a-synthesis-of-research, 10. It is likely that they also bias the justice judgements of observers, especially if the observers hold traditional norms regarding responsibilities in the household and family (e.g., male-breadwinner model; see, Lang and Gro, 2020). To test the robustness of the results of the models presented above, Table 9 shows the pooled analysis of the differences between the student and the population samples with restricted samples. The gender pay gap in a federal state did not directly affect the justice evaluations. Example of a vignette with a rating scale used in population sample 1 and the student sample. Res. First, it was assumed that people experience gender bias in their daily lives. To test how actual inequality influences evaluations in the general population samples, the average earnings of full-time employees and the actual gender pay gap in different federal states in Germany were attached to the survey data7. Influence of Women - Student Specific Content Learning Outcomes, 32. Berlin: Bundesministerium fr Bildung und Forschung (BMBF). Both raw and adjusted gender wage gap estimates are highly dispersed in our sample, with values ranging from almost nil to as much as 95% of men wages. For example, recently, it has become increasingly important to individually negotiate at least parts of one's earnings or other gratifications. Thus, actors who experience gender inequality are more likely to activate a gender-biased referential structure in justice evaluations and therefore (unconsciously) perceive gender differences as legitimate. 28, 415434. The factorial survey is a survey experiment that presents the respondents brief descriptions of persons or situations that consist of dimensions (e.g., gender, occupation, education) that vary experimentally in their levels. Competition, Meritocracy, and Pay and Tenure Outcomes). Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices. Illogical cases are, e.g., medical doctors without a university degree. Sociol. There exist regional differences in the gender pay gap. doi: 10.2307/2095476. J. Sociol. While the findings are reproducible with full population sample 2, they are not reproducible with full population sample 1 (gender pay gap of the federal state is statistically insignificant, although the coefficients have the same sign). According to conflict theory, social problems are created when dominant groups exploit or oppress subordinate groups. (2009, 2011, 2014). The Conflict Perspective by Boundless, Boundless Sociology, http://oer2go.org/mods/en-boundless/www.boundless.com/sociology/textbooks/boundless-sociology-textbook/index.html is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted. Social structure and the paradox of the contented female worker: how occupational gender segregation biases justice perceptions of wages. ^The combination of these factors addresses interactions between gender and other characteristics, e.g., experience or education. We have this belief as a society that men are better than women. Microeconometrics Using Stata, Vol. One study was conducted with social sciences students, and two used population samples of German inhabitants. Die Bewertung von Erwerbseinkommen Methodische und inhaltliche Analysen zu einer Vignettenstudie im Rahmen des SOEP-Pretest 2008. In the student sample and population sample 1, respondents were asked to evaluate each vignette via an 11-point rating scale. These characteristics can be achieved, such as performance, or ascribed, such as gender (Berger et al., 1977). Friedrich Engels, a Germansociologist, studied family structure and gender roles from aMarxistperspective. This high-status group preference is shared by both the advantaged and disadvantaged groups, and accordingly, both male and female observers assign higher earnings to male recipients. Population sample 2 used a three-stage rating task. Studying justice: measurement, estimation, and analysis of the actual reward and the just reward, in Distributive and Procedural Justice, eds K. Trnblom and R. Vermunt (London: Ashgate), 225254. Since 2002, the sample size has been approximately 1,000 respondents and considered representative of the German resident population 16 years of age and older (Siegel et al., 2009). The results show that the gender pay gap that observers experience influences their evaluations regarding the recipient's gender. Jasso and Webster (1997) found a so-called just gender pay gapthe difference between earnings evaluated as just for male and female recipientsin a re-analysis of a factorial survey study conducted by Jasso and Rossi in 1974 (Jasso and Rossi, 1977). DFG Research Center (SFB) 882 From Heterogeneities to Inequalities (Bielefeld University). Let's start with Structural Functionalism. Am. Norwegian Institute for Social Research (ISF), Norway, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, United States. Am. The gender wage gap refers to the difference in earnings between women and men. Hypothesis 1. WebThe theoretical perspective that explains the issue of gender wage gap inequality is the conflict theory. Gender pay gap differs widely by race and ethnicity Looking across racial and ethnic groups, a wide gulf separates the earnings of Black and Hispanic women from the earnings of White men. In addition, the design features lead to minimal standard errors in data analyses and, therefore, in comparison to other designs (such as random samples), achieve higher statistical power and efficiency to reveal the influence of single dimensions. The Gender Pay Gap for Doctors Is Getting Worse. Non-reflexive judgments, on the other hand, are not affected by conflicts of justice perceptions and individuals' own interests because people judge rewards by which they are not affected (especially when people evaluate fictitious others, as is the case in factorial survey studies). One must bear in mind that the vignettes in the student sample and population sample 1 were designed equally, so differences can be attributed to rating behavior and not to design elements. The interaction effect in Model 4 is insignificant, meaning that male and female respondents both produced to the same extent a just gender pay gap favoring male recipients in their evaluations. Moreover, all coefficients are similar in both samples, even though the rating task was different, which indicates stable results. People who are embedded in a social structure that is highly gender unequal likely compare rewardees to generalized others (i.e., a typical female or male employee) that reproduce these inequalities. The social issue of the inequality of the pay signifies how women are treated with bias in their workplaces. Occupation was transformed into a metric scale using the Standard International Occupational Prestige Scale (SIOPS; Ganzeboom and Treiman, 1996). doi: 10.1177/0003122416673598, Finke, C., Dumpert, F., and Beck, M. (2017). doi: 10.1177/0730888417753048, Whitmeyer, J. M. (2004). You can help correct errors and omissions. Reward expectations theory connects status characteristics to reward expectations and perceptions of justice and injustice (Berger et al., 1985). (1972), the vignette dimensions are the characteristics of the recipient, and the gross earnings are the goal object. Although only a share of respondents participate in the labor market, these status differences are shared beliefs in wide parts of society because they have spread throughout the population. The justice of earnings in dual-earner households. doi: 10.1086/226706, Jasso, G. (1980). 42, 639651. First, the focus is on the effect of the gender of the vignette person on the justice evaluations for each sample. HUM210 Introduction to Women and Gender Studies, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, Conflicttheoryasserts that social problems occur whendominant. These results are similar to where the pay gap stood in WebConflict theory will always exist in the gender wage inequality as long as men believe that they are better than women. Moreover, the respondents could skip vignettes if they did not want to answer. The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. Observers (do not) produce a just gender pay gap with their ratings. These results are similar to where the pay gap stood in Gender differences in experimental wage negotiations. J. Kuhfeld, W. F. (2005). Beschftigungsstatistik: Sozialversicherungspflichtige Bruttoarbeitsentgelte. The formalized evaluation can be stated as follows (Jasso, 1978): The justice evaluation J of an observer is equal to the logarithmic ratio of the actual rewards A and the just rewards C of a recipient.

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